Effects of School Funding on Student Academic Achievement

Effects of School Funding on Student Academic Achievement Education Policy Analysis Maya Boyle Mike  Robinson Introduction Background For the past 50 years, SAT scores for high schools across the nation have been steadily falling. Because the SAT is a fairly consistent method of testing the academic aptitude of high-school age children, this trend is concerning. As it stands, by the standards of the College Board, high school academics are preparing students less and less adequately for the rigours of secondary education. This paper seeks to address what policy initiatives can be taken by states to raise these scores. Research I hypothesised at the beginning of the study that per capita expenditures on primary and secondary education would have a significant effect on SAT scores. By using multiple data sets: population data from the US Census Bureau, education expenditure results from the Department of Education, a partial data set from STATA, and participation levels by the College Board, I amassed a collection of variables that I considered to be most valuable to determining the relationship between state education policy and SAT scores Mean scores of college-bound seniors The SAT Stacks of college test prep books Basic Conclusions By analysing what I determined to be the most significant factors affecting SAT performance, I concluded that the factor which could most effectively boost SAT scores came on the heels of SAT participation. SAT scores were strongly correlated with participation levels. A greater percentage of high school students taking the exam in each state resulted in a weaker performance. A disproportionately high number of high-scoring participants take the SAT whether or not initiatives are undertaken by state governments or schools to boost participation. Those students typically score higher. The increase in participation of students taking the SAT will come from a portion of the population who otherwise would transition straight to career paths out of high school. Education initiatives typically give these students an opportunity to take the test, and these students typically score lower. Ultimately, from a policy perspective, the best way to boost scores is to ready the portion of students who are being given the opportunity to take the SAT through funding and other education initiatives. It is useless for them to take the exam if all it does is prove that they are not ready for college. Literature Review Zajonic, Robert B., Bargh, John A. Birth order, family size, and decline of SAT scores. American Psychologist 79.1 (1989): 179-197. http://www.apa.org. Web. 4 Dec. 2012. The survey of SAT scores and birth order demonstrated that a negligible fraction of the decline in SAT scores can be explained by changes in family dynamics. In general, SAT scores showed little variation with birth order and family size, which was far less than that which was found in other data sets. Murray, Charles, and Richard J. Herrnstein. Whats Really behind the SAT-Score Decline?. Public Interest 106 (1992): 32-56. This survey of SAT scores and population distinguished between the separate populations of high school students who took the SAT and those who did not. Suggested that the greatest effect on the SAT-score decline was the regression of academic capabilities of high-school age teenagers. This possibly came from the ‘dumbing-down’ of textbooks Wharton, Yvonne L. List of Hypotheses Advanced to Explain the SAT Score Decline. (1976). The hypotheses analysed in this study suggested that changes in schools, society, population, and an increase in problems with the tests themselves are the greatest contributors to the decrease in SAT Scores. A list of variables: â€Å"The first major category (changes in the schools) is further broken down into hypotheses related to curriculum, institutional policies, teachers, and students. The second major category (changes in society) lists hypotheses related to family, religion, civil rights, crisis of values, national priorities, economic, labor movement in education, and technological changes. (Abstract)† Model Objective In this report, I will attempt to determine which two variables would most significantly positively effect mean SAT scores in college-bound high-school adolescents. An exhaustive list of the variables I used were: Mean Composite SAT scores, Mean Verbal, Mean Math, Geographical Region (dummy variable), Population, Per pupil expenditures (primary and secondary education), Government education spending, Median household income, Percent of High School graduates taking SAT. Models The primary models I used to determine which two variables that could be affected by state education policy were: Regressing SAT scores against government spending and income Regressing SAT scores against state population and percentage of high school students who took the SAT Regressing SAT scores against per pupil expenditures on primary and secondary education and percentage of high school students who took the SAT Finally, I developed a model with each of the variables that ultimately seemed most relevant: Regressing mean SAT scores, controlling for population, per pupil expenditures, median household income, and the percent of students taking the SAT. Hypothesis Before I ran the regressions, I hypothesised that the main factors affecting SAT performance would be median household and per pupil expenditures for primary and secondary education. I anticipated that states with a higher portion of domestic wealth would score better because there would be more local money going into infrastructure, and assumed that states with higher levels of spending on primary and secondary education would be higher because they reflect a greater education initiative. Methodology/Data Testing the Hypothesis For each regression, I focused most specifically on the coefficient, t-statistic, and r-squared result. Regression 1 I hypothesised that an increase in government spending will increase states’ SAT scores, controlling for median household income Null hypothesis was not proven What does this mean? R-squared: accounted for about 1/4 of the variance Coefficients were both negative Government spending raises, SAT scores decrease As median income increased, SAT scores decreased T-statistics Both are statistically significant y=-6.62*1071+-4.4581992+1107.044 Regression 2 I hypothesised that larger states receive more funding, and thus would have higher scores. Additionally, more people would lead to greater variance in scores Null hypothesis was not proven What does this mean? R-squared: accounted for about 82% of variance Coefficients: Negative relationship between both population and participation T-statistics: Participation is highly significant, population minimally. y=-1.24*1061-2.82+1021 Regression 3 I hypothesised that primary/secondary education funding would significantly play a role on SAT scores. Additionally, a larger pool of participants accounts for a wider breadth of performance Null hypothesis was not proven What does this mean? R-squared accounted for about 82% of variance Coefficients: Weak, positive relationship with funding, yet a stronger negative relationship with student participation T-statistics: Participation is highly significant y=.00432771-1.9841922+999.483 Regression 4 I hypothesised that funding for primary and secondary education and the percentage of high school students who take the exam will be most important Hypothesis proven true What does this mean? R-squared: accounted for about 88% of variance Coefficients: Expense, Participation, and Region 1 were negatively correlated; all the rest had positive effects T-statistics: Only participation was under -1.96; Regions 2 and 4 were over 1.96. These were the most significant. The t-statistic of population was at -1.94, which I considered significant for the intents and purposes of this data. y=-1.36*1061 + .00002822 .00660463 + 1.7964 -2.05165 2.3291556 + 45.0287 + 23.81498 + 989.8613 Analysis Regression 1 Government spending as a whole ultimately does not aid SAT performance. Regardless of whether or not it builds infrastructure, it seems as if funds set aside specifically for primary and secondary education are the most necessary to boost SAT scores. Additionally, I determined that- at least when it comes to SAT scores in high schoolchildren, Wealth does not denote academic success. As was determined from the methodology of regression 1, the statistical relevance of income and insignificance of government spending led me to reason that income played a greater role in determining SAT scores than government spending. Further, I questioned if the results for regression 1 had anything to do with causality, because the states that score more poorly on SATs will receive more money from the government to ameliorate educational infrastructure. Regression 2 Participation was negatively correlated with SAT scores, and significantly so. I reasoned that a base participation rate includes a skewed population of students who intend to go to college regardless of domestic initiatives to send high school students to college before allowing them into the workforce. Therefore, if more students choose to take the SAT, those students will be those who had not necessarily planned their high school education to ready them for the SAT. There scores thus will be lower. Regression 3 While the results of my first regression clearly suggested that government spending as a whole has little to no effect on SAT scores, I aimed to determine that per pupil expenditures on education for primary and secondary schooling had a strong positive correlation with students’ SAT readiness. This was not the case. Government education expenditures was loosely correlated with SAT scores, but not significantly so. This result could possibly have come from different years of availability for each variable. Many of the variables were derived from an old STATA data set that suited my intents, but I added other variables to develop a more individual project. Government spending was one of these variables, and the data may have been more recent than others. Further, as was the case with regression 2, the levels of participation played a strong and significant factor in determining the rate at which students would score on the SAT. The t-statistic was highly significant, so I trust that this correlation is true. I expect the population shift that I described in my previous analysis will still stand. Regression 4 Ultimately, I determined that as much as I had hoped that income and per-pupil education expenditures would have strong effects on the scoring of high schoolers on the SAT, because such effects are easily fixable through initiatives. I was wrong. Expense and income both were determined to be insignificant, with expense ultimately having a negative correlation with SAT scores. This cannot show the whole picture, however. Wealthier states traditionally have stronger educational infrastructures and students who perform better on the SAT. I can only assume that wealthier states are those which have educational initiatives to give more students the chance to take the SATs in the first place, and thus have a pool of lower-scoring students. Conversely, students in states with low median incomes had to have a significant personal initiative to take the Test in the first place. Therefore, the relationship between income and infrastructure is that which renders the relationship negative. Tables Table 1: Table of Means Table 2: Description of Data Variable | Obs Mean Std. Dev. Min Max -+ state | 0 region | 50 2.54 1.128662 1 4 pop | 50 4962040 5459782 454000 2.98e+07 area | 50 70759.14 85796.76 1045 570374 csat | 51 944.098 66.93497 832 1093 -+ vsat | 51 447.8431 31.87562 395 515 msat | 51 496.2549 35.58418 435 578 percent | 51 35.76471 26.19281 4 81 expense | 51 5235.961 1401.155 2960 9259 income | 51 33.95657 6.423134 23.465 48.618 -+ high | 51 76.26078 5.588741 64.3 86.6 college | 51 20.02157 4.16578 12.3 33.3 spending | 51 1.75e+07 2.03e+07 270000 1.03e+08 participat~n | 51 39.33333 32.1538 3 93 Table 3: Regression 1 Table 4: Regression 2 Table 5: Regression 3 Table 6: Regression 4 Table 7: College Board Participation Rates Table 8: College Board Participation Rates (cont.) Basically this isn’t really done. 80 Mount Holyoke CollegeSAT Scores: An Econometrics Perspective 1

Of mice and Men theme- friendship Essay

A Life Long Companion Friendship is ever-present and a necessity in leading a satisfying life. This is evident in the novella â€Å"Of Mice and Men† by John Steinbeck. The story takes off in the Depression Era, a time when distrust was abundant and dreams were constantly shattered. Our main characters, George and Lennie, set off seeking a new beginning to their lives but things take a turn for the worse; despite this, their friendship still flourishes and flowers in the midst of all the obstacles. Between the two main characters, George is more intelligent, but to survive, he cares for and loves Lennie in all the ways that he can. George has foresight and creates back-up plans for Lennie if the situations turn sour, telling Lennie,â€Å" Hide in the brush till I come for you. Can you remember that? † (17). Lennie, on the other hand, keeps George hopeful and upbeat, motivating him by saying, â€Å"Come on, George. Tell me. Please, George. Like you done before† (14). The pair fit like puzzle pieces filling in what the other doesn’t have. It is inspiring to see a tremendous friendship bloom in such a despairing time. The two clearly distinguish themselves from â€Å"them other guys† (15) and the times they are by each other are the times they truly thrive. Another way the two thrive is through their dream. This dream is a recurring theme in this novella and it symbolizes hope. They are both constantly dreaming about â€Å"livin off the fatta the lan† (15) and how Lennie will get to tend the rabbits. There is some irony in there being so much optimism in two migrant, low class workers but the two make it work. By keeping this dream alive the two have something to work for, something to put their fifty dollars a month towards. This dream also serves as quite the problem solver for the two. Each time Lennie gets into trouble, George ends up worrying about the consequences. Lennie puts George at ease by reminding him of the dream and George always ends up forgiving Lennie. Forgiveness is how Lennie and George can keep their friendship going and continue their journey towards the dream. The story is very centered around the problems Lennie creates and how George tries to fix it. And the end of the story, Lennie confesses to â€Å"doing another bad thing† (44) but George just brushes it off, saying, â€Å"It don’t make no difference† (13). At the beginning, however, George admits to Slim that he had done something bad to Lennie and in this case Lennie forgives him. Throughout any relationship there are bound to be ups and downs and George and Lennie maintain a healthy friendship by forgiveness. Steinbeck gave George’s character quite a big heart because he may complain about his misfortunes whilst staying with Lennie but he never leaves Lennie’s side. While seeking a new chapter to their lives, George and Lennie develop a unique and complex friendship. The two lifelong companions go through a ton of trouble and it is amazing how their friendship lasts till the very end. Steinbeck illustrates how with care, optimism, and forgiveness, friendships can flourish even in the midst of treacherous obstacles.

Baking Brownies

What I am going to demonstrate today is the process of baking brownies. Before we begin, however, let us allow ourselves to look into its definition and a little history: Chocolate brownie or Boston brownie, as it is otherwise known is called â€Å"brownie† because its color is brown (Wikipedia, 2007). Though diminutive in size, it is rich and chocolaty, and is sometimes topped with chocolate chips or nuts (Wikipedia, 2007). History has it that it was in 1897 that brownies have been introduced for the first time in a â€Å"Sears and Roebuck† catalog (Wikipedia, 2007).There are stories, however, that states that there was once a cook who forgot to mix baking powder in the chocolate cake mixture (Wikipedia, 2007). Some historians also claim that Bertha Palmer asked that a dessert be placed in box lunches, thus, motivating Chicago’s Palmer House Hotel in Chicago to design what is to be known as a â€Å"Brownie† (Wikipedia, 2007). This paper entitled, â€Å"B aking Brownies† intends to briefly reintroduce the definition and history of brownies, as well as, provide the steps to baking it, starting from the gathering of ingredients until its cutting into bars. Baking UtensilsHowever, before we begin with the process of baking brownies; we should first make sure that we have all the baking utensils we will need. First of all, we will need one bowl (Collister, 2006). This will be used as a mixing container (Collister, 2006). Secondly, one glass baking pan is necessitated (Collister, 2006). This is where the brownie mixture will be placed, before it is baked in the oven (Collister, 2006). The third is to make sure that a dish towel or an oven mitt is available nearby (Collister, 2006). It will be used when the glass baking pan is placed and taken out of the oven (Collister, 2006).The fourth is to get a spatula which will be utilized in folding, mixing, scraping, smoothing batters, lifting, removing and turning the brownie to allow the o ther side to turn brown if desired (Collister, 2006). Last but not least is to get the mixing spoon, as well as, measuring cups and spoons (Collister, 2006). Baking Brownies the Easy Way Now that we know a little bit about its definition, we may proceed to the process on how it is actually prepared: First of all, we need to make sure that we have all the ingredients we will need (Collister, 2006).These include the following (Collister, 2006): 1) 1 cup or 250 ml butter 2) 4 oz or 115 g or 4 squares unsweetened chocolates 3) 2 cups or 500 ml sugar 4) 4 pieces eggs 5) 2 tsp or 10 ml vanilla 6) 1 ? cups or 375 ml sifted all-purpose flour 7) ? tsp or 2 ml salt 8) 1 ? cups or 375 ml pecan halves 9) icing sugar Secondly, we need to heat the oven to a hundred and ninety degrees Celsius or three hundred seventy five degrees Fahrenheit (Collister, 2006). Thirdly, after heating the oven, we grease the 13- x 9-in or 33- x 23- x 5-cm cake pan (Collister, 2006).The fourth step is to place the but ter and chocolate on top the double boiler and set over simmering water (Collister, 2006). Stir occasionally over the heat until the butter, as well as, the chocolate is melted (Collister, 2006). Fifth, the sugar should be placed in a medium mixing bowl, then after that, the chocolate mixture should be poured over before stirring it (Oliver, 1993). Immediately after, the unbeaten eggs should be added one at a time, beating lightly utilizing a wooden spoon (Oliver, 1993). The term â€Å"lightly† means just enough to blend (Oliver, 1993).Then the vanilla should be stirred next (Oliver, 1993). After which, the flour and salt should be sifted into the chocolate mixture making sure that it is stirred before stirring in the pecans (Oliver, 1993). The sixth step is to spread it in the prepared pan and bake it for twenty five to thirty minutes or until sides test done but an impression stays in the middle when touched lightly with the finger (Oliver, 1993). It is good to remember tho ugh that brownies are much better or even best when somewhat underdone (Oliver, 1993).The final step is to take it out from the oven and sift icing sugar thickly over the top and cut it into bars while it is still warm (Oliver, 1993). Conclusion Brownies are called so because of its rich, chocolaty, brown color (Wikipedia, 2007). Its history has not been confirmed though there are several interesting stories that may back it up (Wikipedia, 2007). Interestingly, it is easy to prepare. First the oven should be heated and cake pan should be greased (Collister, 2006). Secondly, the butter and chocolate should be melted (Collister, 2006).Third, the sugar, chocolate mixture, eggs, vanilla, flour, salt, and pecans should be mixed together (Oliver, 1993). Fourth, the mixture should be placed on the cake pan, and baked (Oliver, 1993). Then finally, it should be taken out and icing sugar be sifted over it and then sliced (Oliver, 1993). References Collister, L. (2006). Brownies. New York: Ryl and Peters & Small. Oliver, M. (1993). The Good Food Cookbook. Montreal: Optimum Publishing Company. Wikipedia. (2007). Brownies. Retrieved March 1, 2007 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Chocolate_brownie

Police brutality - 1678 Words

Tinker-Martin6 Police Brutality, Have Times Really Changed The history of Police Brutality for minorities; especially people of color has left America wondering have times changed. Police brutality has deemed the opportunity for socioeconomic advancement or access to good and services for many Black/African Americans dating back as far as 1955. The system of Police brutality has affected many realms of society for minorities’ employment and family life. After some scholarly research, police brutality is still prevalent in the Black/African American community; moreover, it comes in many different forms and fashions. Police brutality is the use of excessive and/or unnecessary force by police when dealing with civilians. Excessive use†¦show more content†¦Despite the important racial progresss our society has made since Emmett Till’s death, from the civil rights era, to present increase of police brutality has still left the Black/African American community in sha dows of segregation. The second most recent shooting of teenager Michael Brown has left citizens in ongoing battles with law enforcement officers of Ferguson, Missouri. New Statement (2014) reports, Missouri police similarly attempted to retain control of the narrative, claiming Brown had stolen cigars, and then paying for them, and then claiming he was a bad child and attacked the officer who shot him† (New Statement, 21). Brown autopsy reveals he was gun less and shot six times. Police brutality is not solely about Ferguson, Emmett Till, or the civil rights movement, but it is simply about the history of capitalism and police brutality in America and having many forms of it. Which leads us to the question has times really changed are is police brutality still very surreal. Granted we talked mostly about Emmet Till, Trayvon Martin Michael Brown, and the civil rights these are not the only men or eras in time where police brutality has and still to this day is taking place. 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